Sultan of the Ottoman Empire | |
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Osmanl? padi?ahlar? | |
Imperial | |
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Details | |
Style | His Imperial Majesty |
First monarch | Osman I (c. 1299-1323/4) |
Last monarch | Mehmed VI (1918-1922) |
Formation | c. 1299 |
Abolition | 1 November 1922 |
Residence | Palaces in Istanbul:
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Appointer | Hereditary |
The sultans of the Ottoman Empire (Turkish: Osmanl? padi?ahlar?), who were all members of the Ottoman dynasty (House of Osman), ruled over the transcontinental empire from its perceived inception in 1299 to its dissolution in 1922. At its height, the Ottoman Empire spanned an area from Hungary in the north to Yemen in the south, and from Algeria in the west to Iraq in the east. Administered at first from the city of Sö?üt since before 1280 and then from the city of Bursa since 1323 or 1324, the empire's capital was moved to Adrianople (now known as Edirne in English) in 1363 following its conquest by Murad I, and then to Constantinople (present-day Istanbul) in 1453 following its conquest by Mehmed II.[1]
The Ottoman Empire's early years have been the subject of varying narratives due to the difficulty of discerning fact from legend. The empire came into existence at the end of the thirteenth century, and its first ruler (and the namesake of the Empire) was Osman I. According to later, often unreliable Ottoman tradition, Osman was a descendant of the Kay? tribe of the Oghuz Turks.[2] The eponymous Ottoman dynasty he founded endured for six centuries through the reigns of 36 sultans. The Ottoman Empire disappeared as a result of the defeat of the Central Powers with whom it had allied itself during World War I. The partitioning of the Empire by the victorious Allies and the ensuing Turkish War of Independence led to the abolition of the sultanate in 1922 and the birth of the modern Republic of Turkey in 1922.[3]
The sultan was also referred to as the Padishah (Ottoman Turkish: , romanized: pâdi?âh, French: Padichah). In Ottoman usage the word "Padisha" was usually used except "sultan" was used when he was directly named.[4] In several European languages, he was referred to as the Grand Turk, as the ruler of the Turks,[5] or simply the "Great Lord" (il Gran Signore, le grand seigneur) especially in the 16th century.
Names of the sultan in languages used by ethnic minorities:[4]
The Ottoman Empire was an absolute monarchy during much of its existence. By the second half of the fifteenth century, the sultan sat at the apex of a hierarchical system and acted in political, military, judicial, social, and religious capacities under a variety of titles.[a] He was theoretically responsible only to God and God's law (the Islamic ?eriat, known in Arabic as sharia), of which he was the chief executor. His heavenly mandate was reflected in Islamic titles such as "shadow of God on Earth" ( ? ll All?h f?'l-?alem) and "caliph of the face of the earth" ( ? ?alife-i r?-yi zem?n).[6] All offices were filled by his authority, and every law was issued by him in the form of a decree called firman (). He was the supreme military commander and had the official title to all land.[7]Osman (died 1323/4) son of Ertu?rul was the first ruler of the Ottoman state, which during his reign constituted a small principality (beylik) in the region of Bithynia on the frontier of the Byzantine Empire.
After the conquest of Constantinople in 1453 by Mehmed II, Ottoman sultans came to regard themselves as the successors of the Roman Empire, hence their occasional use of the titles caesar (? qayser) of Rûm, and emperor,[6][8][9] as well as the caliph of Islam.[b] Newly enthroned Ottoman rulers were girded with the Sword of Osman, an important ceremony that served as the equivalent of European monarchs' coronation.[10] A non-girded sultan was not eligible to have his children included in the line of succession.[11]
Although absolute in theory and in principle, the sultan's powers were limited in practice. Political decisions had to take into account the opinions and attitudes of important members of the dynasty, the bureaucratic and military establishments, as well as religious leaders.[7] Beginning in the last decades of the sixteenth century, the role of the Ottoman sultans in the government of the empire began to decrease, in a period known as the Transformation of the Ottoman Empire. Despite being barred from inheriting the throne,[12] women of the imperial harem--especially the reigning sultan's mother, known as the valide sultan--also played an important behind-the-scenes political role, effectively ruling the empire during the period known as the Sultanate of Women.[13]
Constitutionalism was established during the reign Abdul Hamid II, who thus became the empire's last absolute ruler and its reluctant first constitutional monarch.[14] Although Abdul Hamid II abolished the parliament and the constitution to return to personal rule in 1878, he was again forced in 1908 to reinstall constitutionalism and was deposed. Since 2017, the head of the House of Osman has been Dündar Ali Osman, a great-grandson of Abdul Hamid II.[15]
The table below lists Ottoman sultans, as well as the last Ottoman caliph, in chronological order. Continuingly, the tughras were the calligraphic seals or signatures used by Ottoman sultans. They were displayed on all official documents as well as on coins, and were far more important in identifying a sultan than his portrait. The "Notes" column contains information on each sultan's parentage and fate. For earlier rulers, there is usually a time gap between the moment a sultan's reign ended and the moment his successor was enthroned. This is because the Ottomans in that era practiced what historian Quataert has described as "survival of the fittest, not eldest, son": when a sultan died, his sons had to fight each other for the throne until a victor emerged. Because of the infighting and numerous fratricides that occurred, a sultan's death date therefore did not always coincide with the accession date of his successor.[16] In 1617, the law of succession changed from survival of the fittest to a system based on agnatic seniority ( ekberiyet), whereby the throne went to the oldest male of the family. This in turn explains why from the 17th century onwards a deceased sultan was rarely succeeded by his own son, but usually by an uncle or brother.[17] Agnatic seniority was retained until the abolition of the sultanate, despite unsuccessful attempts in the 19th century to replace it with primogeniture.[18] Note that pretenders and co-claimants during the Ottoman Interregnum are also listed here, but they are not included in the formal numbering of sultans.
No | Sultan | Portrait | Reigned from | Reigned until | Time in office | Tughra | Notes |
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Rise of the Ottoman Empire (1299 - 1453) | |||||||
1 | Osman I Z? (the Warrior) |
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c. 1299 | c. 1326 [19] | 27 years, 0 days | -- [c] |
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2 | Orhan Z? (the Warrior) |
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c. 1326 [22] | 1362 | 36 years, 0 days |
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3 | Murad I SULTÂN-I ÂZAM (the Most Exalted Sultan) HÜDAVEND?GÂR (the Devotee of God) ?EHÎD (the Martyr) [24][b] |
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1362 | 15 June 1389 | 27 years, 165 days | ![]() |
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4 | Bayezid I SULTÂN-I RÛM (Sultan of Rome) YILDIRIM (Thunderbolt) |
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15 June 1389 | 20 July 1402 | 13 years, 35 days |
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Ottoman Interregnum[d] (20 July 1402 - 5 July 1413) | |||||||
-- | ?sa Çelebi The Co-Sultan of Anatolia |
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1403-1405 (Sultan of the Western Anatolian Territory) |
1406 | 3 years, 0 days | -- |
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-- | Emir (Amir) Süleyman Çelebi The First Sultan of Rumelia |
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20 July 1402 | 17 February 1411[27] | 8 years, 212 days | ![]() |
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-- | Musa Çelebi The Second Sultan of Rumelia |
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18 February 1411 | 5 July 1413[29] | 2 years, 0 days | -- |
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-- | Mehmed Çelebi The Sultan of Anatolia |
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1403-1406 (Sultan of the Eastern Anatolian Territory) 1406-1413 (The Sultan of Anatolia) |
5 July 1413 | 10 years, 185 days | -- |
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Sultanate resumed | |||||||
5 | Mehmed I ÇELEB? (The Affable) K?RÇ? (lit. The Bowstring Maker for his support) |
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5 July 1413 | 26 May 1421 | 7 years, 325 days |
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-- | Mustafa Çelebi The Third Sultan of Rumelia |
-- | January 1419 | May 1422 | 3 years, 120 days | -- | |
6 | Murad II KOCA (The Great) Ghazavat-? Sultan (Ghazi Sultan) |
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25 June 1421 | 1444 | 22 years, 190 days |
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7 | Mehmed II F?T (The Conqueror) |
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1444 | 1446 | 2 years, 0 days |
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(6) | Murad II KOCA (The Great) |
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1446 | 3 February 1451 | 5 years, 33 days | ||
Growth of the Ottoman Empire (1453 - 1550) | |||||||
(7) | Mehmed II KAYSER-? RÛM (Caesar of the Roman Empire) F?T (The Conqueror) |
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3 February 1451 | 3 May 1481 | 30 years, 89 days |
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8 | Bayezid II VELÎ (The Saint) |
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19 May 1481 | 25 April 1512 | 30 years, 342 days |
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-- | Cem Sultan | ![]() |
28 May 1481 | 20 June 1481 | 23 days | ![]() |
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9 | Selim I YAVUZ (The Strong) Hadim'ul Haramain'ish-Sharifain (Servant of Mecca and Medina) |
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25 April 1512 | 21 September 1520 | 8 years, 149 days |
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10 | Suleiman I MUHTE?EM (The Magnificent) or
KANÛNÎ (The Lawgiver) |
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30 September 1520 | 6 September 1566 | 45 years, 341 days | ![]() |
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Transformation of the Ottoman Empire (1550 - 1700) | |||||||
11 | Selim II SARI (The Blond) Fatih Cyprus (The Conqueror of Cyprus) Sarho? (The Drunk) |
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29 September 1566 | 21 December 1574 | 8 years, 83 days |
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12 | Murad III Dindar (The Pious) |
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22 December 1574 | 16 January 1595 | 20 years, 25 days |
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13 | Mehmed III ADLÎ (The Just) |
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16 January 1595 | 22 December 1603 | 8 years, 340 days |
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14 | Ahmed I BA?T? (The Fortunate) |
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22 December 1603 | 22 November 1617 | 13 years, 335 days |
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15 | Mustafa I DEL? (The Mad) |
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22 November 1617 | 26 February 1618 | 96 days |
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16 | Osman II GENÇ (The Young) ?EHÎD (The Martyr) ? |
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26 February 1618 | 19 May 1622 | 4 years, 82 days |
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(15) | Mustafa I DEL? (The Mad) |
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20 May 1622 | 10 September 1623 | 1 year, 113 days | ||
17 | Murad IV SAH?B-Î KIRAN The Conqueror of Baghdad Z? (The Warrior) ? |
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10 September 1623 | 8 February 1640 | 16 years, 151 days | ![]() |
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18 | Ibrahim DEL? (The Mad) The Conqueror of Crete ?EHÎD |
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9 February 1640 | 8 August 1648 | 8 years, 181 days |
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19 | Mehmed IV AVCI (The Hunter) Z? (The Warrior) ? |
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8 August 1648 | 8 November 1687 | 39 years, 92 days |
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20 | Suleiman II Z? (The Warrior) |
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8 November 1687 | 22 June 1691 | 3 years, 226 days |
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21 | Ahmed II N Z? (The Warrior Prince) |
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22 June 1691 | 6 February 1695 | 3 years, 229 days |
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22 | Mustafa II Z? (The Warrior) |
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6 February 1695 | 22 August 1703 | 8 years, 197 days |
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Stagnation and reform of the Ottoman Empire (1700 - 1827) | |||||||
23 | Ahmed III Z? (The Warrior) |
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22 August 1703 | 1 October 1730 | 27 years, 40 days |
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24 | Mahmud I Z? (The Warrior) KAMBUR (The Hunchback) |
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2 October 1730 | 13 December 1754 | 24 years, 72 days |
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25 | Osman III SOFU (The Devout) |
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13 December 1754 | 30 October 1757 | 2 years, 321 days |
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26 | Mustafa III YEN?L?KÇ? (The First Innovative) |
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30 October 1757 | 21 January 1774 | 16 years, 83 days |
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27 | Abdul Hamid I Abd ?l-H?m?d (The Servant of God) ISLAHATÇI (The Improver) Z? (The Warrior) |
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21 January 1774 | 7 April 1789 | 15 years, 76 days |
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28 | Selim III BESTEKÂR (The Composer) N?ZÂMÎ (Regulative - Orderly) ?EHÎD (The Martyr) |
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7 April 1789 | 29 May 1807 | 18 years, 52 days |
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29 | Mustafa IV | ![]() |
29 May 1807 | 28 July 1808 | 1 year, 60 days |
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Modernization of the Ottoman Empire (1827 - 1908) | |||||||
30 | Mahmud II ?NKILÂPÇI (The Reformer) Z? (The Warrior) |
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28 July 1808 | 1 July 1839 | 30 years, 338 days |
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31 | Abdulmejid I TANZ?MÂTÇI (The Strong Reformist or The Advocate of Reorganization) Z? (The Warrior) |
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1 July 1839 | 25 June 1861 | 21 years, 359 days |
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32 | Abdulaziz BA?TSIZ (The Unfortunate) ?EH?D (The Martyr) |
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25 June 1861 | 30 May 1876 | 14 years, 340 days | ![]() |
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33 | Murad V | ![]() |
30 May 1876 | 31 August 1876 | 93 days |
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34 | Abdul Hamid II Ulû Sultân Abd ?l-H?m?d Khan (The Sublime Khan) |
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31 August 1876 | 27 April 1909 | 32 years, 239 days | ![]() |
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35 | Mehmed V RE?ÂD (Rash?d) (The True Path Follower) |
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27 April 1909 | 3 July 1918 | 9 years, 67 days | ![]() |
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36 | Mehmed VI VAHDETT?N (W?h?d ?d-D?n) (The Unifier of D?n (Islam) or The Oneness of Islam) |
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4 July 1918 | 1 November 1922 | 4 years, 120 days | ![]() |
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Caliph under the Republic (1 November 1922 - 3 March 1924) | |||||||
-- | Abdulmejid II | ![]() |
18 November 1922 | 3 March 1924 | 1 year, 106 days | -- [c] |
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That they hailed from the Kay? branch of the O?uz confederacy seems to be a creative "rediscovery" in the genealogical concoction of the fifteenth century. It is missing not only in Ahmedi but also, and more importantly, in the Yah?i Fakih-Akpa?azade narrative, which gives its own version of an elaborate genealogical family tree going back to Noah. If there was a particularly significant claim to Kay? lineage, it is hard to imagine that Yah?i Fakih would not have heard of it.
Based on these charters, all of which were drawn up between 1324 and 1360 (almost one hundred fifty years prior to the emergence of the Ottoman dynastic myth identifying them as members of the Kay? branch of the Oguz federation of Turkish tribes), we may posit that...
In fact, no matter how one were to try, the sources simply do not allow the recovery of a family tree linking the antecedents of Osman to the Kay? of the O?uz tribe. Without a proven genealogy, or even without evidence of sufficient care to produce a single genealogy to be presented to all the court chroniclers, there obviously could be no tribe; thus, the tribe was not a factor in early Ottoman history.