Vietnamese
Ti?ng Vi?t
Pronunciation	[t vìt] (Northern) [t jì?k] (Southern)
Native to	Vietnam and China (Dongxing, Guangxi)
Native speakers	76 million (2009)[1]
Language family	Austroasiatic Vietic Viet-Muong Vietnamese
Early forms	Viet-Muong Old Vietnamese Middle Vietnamese
Writing system	Latin (Vietnamese alphabet) Vietnamese Braille Ch? Hán and Ch? Nôm (historic; current use by Gin people)
Official status
Official language in	Vietnam  ASEAN[2]
Recognised minority language in	Czech Republic
Language codes
	vi
	vie
	vie
Glottolog	viet1252
Linguasphere	46-EBA
Natively Vietnamese-speaking (non-minority) areas of Vietnam[3]
This article contains IPA phonetic symbols. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of Unicode characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see Help:IPA.

This article contains Vietnamese text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of ch? nôm, ch? Hán and ch? qu?c ng?.

This article contains ch? Nôm text. Without proper rendering support, you may see question marks, boxes, or other symbols instead of ch? Nôm.

Global distribution of speakers

Vietnamese (Vietnamese: Ti?ng Vi?t)^[a] is an Austroasiatic language that originated in Vietnam, where it is the national and official language. It is by far the most spoken Austroasiatic language with over 70 million native speakers, many times more than Khmer, the next most spoken Austroasiatic language.^[4] It is the native language of the Vietnamese (Kinh) people, as well as a second language or first language for other ethnic groups in Vietnam. As a result of emigration, Vietnamese speakers are also found in other parts of Southeast Asia, East Asia, North America, Europe, and Australia. Vietnamese has also been officially recognized as a minority language in the Czech Republic.^[5]

Like many other languages in Southeast Asia and East Asia, Vietnamese is an analytic language with phonemic tone. It has head-initial directionality, with subject-verb-object order and modifiers following the words they modify. It also uses noun classifiers. Its vocabulary has significant influence from Chinese and French.

Vietnamese was historically written in a mixture of Ch? Hán (Chinese characters) for writing Sino-Vietnamese words and Ch? Nôm, a locally invented Chinese-based script for writing native Vietnamese words. French colonial rule led to the official adoption of the modern Vietnamese alphabet (ch? Qu?c ng?) which is based on the Latin script. It uses digraphs and diacritics to mark tones and pronunciation. While Ch? Hán and Ch? Nôm fell out of use in Vietnam by the early 20th century, they are still occasionally used by the Gin people in southeastern China.^[6]

Geographic distribution

As the national language, Vietnamese is the lingua franca in Vietnam. It is also spoken by the Gin traditionally residing on three islands (now joined to the mainland) off Dongxing in southern Guangxi Province, China.^[7] A large number of Vietnamese speakers also reside in neighboring countries of Cambodia and Laos.

In the United States, Vietnamese is the fifth most spoken language, with over 1.5 million speakers, who are concentrated in a handful of states. It is the third most spoken language in Texas and Washington; fourth in Georgia, Louisiana, and Virginia; and fifth in Arkansas and California.^[8] Vietnamese is the seventh most spoken language in Australia.^[9] In France, it is the most spoken Asian language and the eighth most spoken immigrant language at home.^[10]

Official status

Vietnamese is the sole official and national language of Vietnam. It is the first language of the majority of the Vietnamese population, as well as a first or second language for the country's ethnic minority groups.^[11]

In the Czech Republic, Vietnamese has been recognized as one of 14 minority languages, on the basis of communities that have resided in the country either traditionally or on a long-term basis. This status grants the Vietnamese community in the country a representative on the Government Council for Nationalities, an advisory body of the Czech Government for matters of policy towards national minorities and their members. It also grants the community the right to use Vietnamese with public authorities and in courts anywhere in the country.^[12][13]

As a foreign language

Vietnamese is increasingly being taught in schools and institutions outside of Vietnam, a large part which is contributed by its large diaspora. In countries with strongly established Vietnamese-speaking communities such as the United States, France, Australia, Canada, Germany, and the Czech Republic, Vietnamese language education largely serves as a cultural role to link descendants of Vietnamese immigrants to their ancestral culture. Meanwhile, in countries near Vietnam such as Cambodia, Laos, China, Taiwan, and Thailand, the increased role of Vietnamese in foreign language education is largely due to the recent recovery of the Vietnamese economy.^[14][15]

Since the 1980s, Vietnamese language schools (trng Vi?t ng?) have been established for youth in many Vietnamese-speaking communities around the world, notably in the United States.^[16][17]

Similarly, since the late 1980s, the Vietnamese-German community has enlisted the support of city governments to bring Vietnamese into high school curricula for the purpose of teaching and reminding Vietnamese German students of their mother-tongue. Furthermore, there has also been a number of Germans studying Vietnamese due to increased economic investments and business.^[18][19]

Historic and stronger trade and diplomatic relations with Vietnam and a growing interest among the French Vietnamese population (one of France's most established non-European ethnic groups) of their ancestral culture have also led to an increasing number of institutions in France, including universities, to offer formal courses in the language.^[20]

Linguistic classification

Early linguistic work some 150 years ago^[21] classified Vietnamese as belonging to the Mon-Khmer branch of the Austroasiatic language family (which also includes the Khmer language spoken in Cambodia, as well as various smaller and/or regional languages, such as the Munda and Khasi languages spoken in eastern India, and others in Laos, southern China and parts of Thailand). Later, Muong was found to be more closely related to Vietnamese than other Mon-Khmer languages, and a Viet-Muong subgrouping was established, also including Thavung, Chut, Cuoi, etc.^[22] The term "Vietic" was proposed by Hayes (1992),^[23] who proposed to redefine Viet-Muong as referring to a subbranch of Vietic containing only Vietnamese and Muong. The term "Vietic" is used, among others, by Gérard Diffloth, with a slightly different proposal on subclassification, within which the term "Viet-Muong" refers to a lower subgrouping (within an eastern Vietic branch) consisting of Vietnamese dialects, Muong dialects, and Ngu?n (of Qu?ng Bình Province).^[24]

Lexicon

The result of language contact with Chinese heavily influenced the Vietnamese language overall, causing it to diverge from Viet-Muong into Vietnamese. Modern linguists describe modern Vietnamese having lost many Proto-Austroasiatic phonological and morphological features that original Vietnamese had.^[25] The Chinese influence on Vietnamese corresponds to various periods when Vietnam was under Chinese rule, and subsequent influence after Vietnam became independent. Early linguists thought that this meant Vietnamese lexicon then received only two layers of Chinese words, one stemming from the period under actual Chinese rule and a second layer from afterwards. These words are grouped together as Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary.

However, according to linguist John Phan, "Annamese Middle Chinese" was already used and spoken in the Red River Valley by the 1st century CE, and its vocabulary significantly fused with the co-existing Proto-Viet-Muong language, the immediate ancestor of Vietnamese. He lists three major classes of Sino-Vietnamese borrowings:^[26][27][28] Early Sino-Vietnamese (Han Dynasty (ca. 1st century CE) and Jin Dynasty (ca. 4th century CE), Late Sino-Vietnamese (Tang Dynasty), Recent Sino-Vietnamese (Ming Dynasty and afterwards)

Additionally, the French presence in Vietnam from 1777 to the Geneva Accords of 1954 resulted in influence from the French language, such as 'cà phê', derived from the French word café (coffee). Nowadays, many new words are being added to the language's lexicon due to external influences, especially from English. Some are incorporated into Vietnamese as loan words-- e.g., "TV" has been borrowed as "tivi"; the Cambodian name for Cambodia, "Kampuchea" becomes "Campuchia". Some other borrowings are calques, translated into Vi?t, for example, 'software' is translated into 'ph?n m?m', literally meaning "soft part".

Phonology (linguistics)

Vowels

Vietnamese has a large number of vowels. Below is a vowel diagram of Vietnamese from Hanoi (including centering diphthongs):

	Front	Central	Back
Centering	ia/iê [i]	?a/ []	ua/uô [u]
Close	i/y [i]	? [?]	u [u]
Close-mid/ Mid	ê [e]	? [?:] â [?]	ô [o]
Open-mid/ Open	e [?]	a [a:] ? [a]	o [?]

Front and central vowels (i, ê, e, ?, â, ?, ?, a) are unrounded, whereas the back vowels (u, ô, o) are rounded. The vowels â [?] and ? [a] are pronounced very short, much shorter than the other vowels. Thus, ? and â are basically pronounced the same except that ? [?:] is of normal length while â [?] is short - the same applies to the vowels long a [a:] and short ? [a].^[29]

The centering diphthongs are formed with only the three high vowels (i, ?, u). They are generally spelled as ia, ?a, ua when they end a word and are spelled iê, , uô, respectively, when they are followed by a consonant.

In addition to single vowels (or monophthongs) and centering diphthongs, Vietnamese has closing diphthongs^[30] and triphthongs. The closing diphthongs and triphthongs consist of a main vowel component followed by a shorter semivowel offglide /j/ or /w/.^[31] There are restrictions on the high offglides: /j/ cannot occur after a front vowel (i, ê, e) nucleus and /w/ cannot occur after a back vowel (u, ô, o) nucleus.^[32]

	/w/ offglide		/j/ offglide
	Front	Central		Back
Centering	iêu [iw]	u [w]	i [j]	uôi [uj]
Close	iu [iw]	?u [?w]	?i [?j]	ui [uj]
Close-mid/ Mid	êu [ew]	- âu[?w]	?i [?:j] ây [?j]	ôi [oj]
Open-mid/ Open	eo [?w]	ao [a:w] au [aw]	ai [a:j] ay [aj]	oi [?j]

The correspondence between the orthography and pronunciation is complicated. For example, the offglide /j/ is usually written as i; however, it may also be represented with y. In addition, in the diphthongs [?j] and [?:j] the letters y and i also indicate the pronunciation of the main vowel: ay = ? + /j/, ai = a + /j/. Thus, "tay" "hand" is [t?j] while "tai" "ear" is [t?:j]. Similarly, u and o indicate different pronunciations of the main vowel: au = ? + /w/, ao = a + /w/. Thus, thau "brass" is [tw] while thao "raw silk" is [t:w].

Consonants

The consonants that occur in Vietnamese are listed below in the Vietnamese orthography with the phonetic pronunciation to the right.

		Labial	Dental/ Alveolar	Retroflex	Palatal	Velar	Glottal
Nasal		m [m]	n [n]		nh [?]	ng/ngh [?]
Stop	tenuis	p [p]	t [t]	tr [?]	ch [c]	c/k/q [k]
	aspirated		th [t?]
	glottalized	b [?]	? [?]
Fricative	voiceless	ph [f]	x [s]	s [?~s]		kh [x~k?]	h [h]
	voiced	v [v]	d/gi [z~j]			g/gh [?]
Approximant			l [l]		y/i [j]	u/o [w]
Rhotic			r [r]

Some consonant sounds are written with only one letter (like "p"), other consonant sounds are written with a digraph (like "ph"), and others are written with more than one letter or digraph (the velar stop is written variously as "c", "k", or "q").

Not all dialects of Vietnamese have the same consonant in a given word (although all dialects use the same spelling in the written language). See the language variation section for further elaboration.

The analysis of syllable-final orthographic ch and nh in Vietnamese has had different analyses. One analysis has final ch, nh as being phonemes /c/, /?/ contrasting with syllable-final t, c /t/, /k/ and n, ng /n/, /?/ and identifies final ch with the syllable-initial ch /c/. The other analysis has final ch and nh as predictable allophonic variants of the velar phonemes /k/ and /?/ that occur after the upper front vowels i /i/ and ê /e/; although they also occur after a, but in such cases are believed to have resulted from an earlier e /?/ which diphthongized to ai (cf. ach from aic, anh from aing). (See Vietnamese phonology: Analysis of final ch, nh for further details.)

Tones

Pitch contours and duration of the six Northern Vietnamese tones as spoken by a male speaker (not from Hanoi). Fundamental frequency is plotted over time. From Nguy?n & Edmondson (1998).

Each Vietnamese syllable is pronounced with an inherent tone,^[33] centered on the main vowel or group of vowels. Tones differ in:

• length (duration)
• pitch contour (i.e. pitch melody)
• pitch height
• phonation

Tone is indicated by diacritics written above or below the vowel (most of the tone diacritics appear above the vowel; however, the n?ng tone dot diacritic goes below the vowel).^[34] The six tones in the northern varieties (including Hanoi), with their self-referential Vietnamese names, are:

Name	Description	Diacritic	Example	Sample vowel
ngang   'level'	mid level	(no mark)	ma  'ghost'	a (help·info)
huy?n   'deep'	low falling (often breathy)	(grave accent)	mà  'but'	à (help·info)
s?c   'sharp'	high rising	(acute accent)	má  'cheek, mother (southern)'	á (help·info)
h?i   'questioning'	mid dipping-rising	(hook above)	m?  'tomb, grave'	? (help·info)
ngã   'tumbling'	high breaking-rising	(tilde)	mã  'horse (Sino-Vietnamese), code'	ã (help·info)
n?ng   'heavy'	low falling constricted (short length)	(dot below)	m?  'rice seedling'	? (help·info)

Other dialects of Vietnamese have fewer tones (typically only five).

In Vietnamese poetry, tones are classed into two groups: (tone pattern)

Words with tones belonging to a particular tone group must occur in certain positions within the poetic verse.

Vietnamese Catholics practice a distinctive style of prayer recitation called c kinh, in which each tone is assigned a specific note or sequence of notes.

Language variation

The Vietnamese language has several mutually intelligible regional varieties (or dialects). The five main dialects are as follows:^[35]

Vietnamese has traditionally been divided into three dialect regions: North, Central, and South. Michel Ferlus and Nguy?n Tài C?n also proved that there was a separate North-Central dialect for Vietnamese as well. The term Haut-Annam refers to dialects spoken from northern Ngh? An Province to southern (former) Th?a Thiên Province that preserve archaic features (like consonant clusters and undiphthongized vowels) that have been lost in other modern dialects.

These dialect regions differ mostly in their sound systems (see below), but also in vocabulary (including basic vocabulary, non-basic vocabulary, and grammatical words) and grammar.^[36] The North-central and Central regional varieties, which have a significant number of vocabulary differences, are generally less mutually intelligible to Northern and Southern speakers. There is less internal variation within the Southern region than the other regions due to its relatively late settlement by Vietnamese speakers (around the end of the 15th century). The North-central region is particularly conservative; its pronunciation has diverged less from Vietnamese orthography than the other varieties, which tend to merge certain sounds. Along the coastal areas, regional variation has been neutralized to a certain extent, while more mountainous regions preserve more variation. As for sociolinguistic attitudes, the North-central varieties are often felt to be "peculiar" or "difficult to understand" by speakers of other dialects, despite the fact that their pronunciation fits the written language the most closely; this is typically because of various words in their vocabulary which are unfamiliar to other speakers (see the example vocabulary table below).

	The first article of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights The first article of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights spoken by Nghiem Mai Phuong, native speaker of a northern variety.
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The large movements of people between North and South beginning in the mid-20th century and continuing to this day have resulted in a sizable number of Southern residents speaking in the Northern accent/dialect and, to a greater extent, Northern residents speaking in the Southern accent/dialect. Following the Geneva Accords of 1954 that called for the temporary division of the country, about a million northerners (mainly from Hanoi, Haiphong and the surrounding Red River Delta areas) moved south (mainly to Saigon and heavily to Biên Hòa and V?ng Tàu, and the surrounding areas) as part of Operation Passage to Freedom. About 3% (~30,000) of that number of people made the move in the reverse direction (T?p k?t ra B?c, literally "go to the North".)

Following the reunification of Vietnam in 1975, Northern and North-Central speakers from the densely populated Red River Delta and the traditionally poorer provinces of Ngh? An, Hà T?nh, and Qu?ng Bình have continued to move South to look for better economic opportunities, beginning with the new government's "New Economic Zones program" which lasted from 1975 to 1985.^[37] The first half of the program (1975-80), resulted in 1.3 million people sent to the New Economic Zones (NEZs), majority of which were relocated to the southern half of the country in previously uninhabited areas, of which 550,000 were Northerners.^[37] The second half (1981-85) saw almost 1 million Northerners relocated to the NEZs.^[37] Government and military personnel from Northern and North-central Vietnam are also posted to various locations throughout the country, often away from their home regions. More recently, the growth of the free market system has resulted in increased interregional movement and relations between distant parts of Vietnam through business and travel. These movements have also resulted in some blending of dialects, but more significantly, have made the Northern dialect more easily understood in the South and vice versa. Most Southerners, when singing modern/old popular Vietnamese songs or addressing the public, do so in the standardized accent if possible (which is Northern pronunciation). This is true in Vietnam as well as in overseas Vietnamese communities.

Modern Standard Vietnamese is based on the Hanoi dialect. Nevertheless, the major dialects are still predominant in their respective areas and have also evolved over time with influences from other areas. Historically, accents have been distinguished by how each region pronounces the letters d ([zuh] in the Northern dialect and [yuh] in the Central and Southern dialect) and r ([zuh] in the Northern dialect, [ruh] in the Central and Southern dialects). Thus, the Central and Southern dialects can be said to have retained a pronunciation closer to Vietnamese orthography and resemble how Middle Vietnamese sounded in contrast to the modern Northern (Hanoi) dialect which underwent shifts.

Vocabulary

Consonants

The syllable-initial ch and tr digraphs are pronounced distinctly in North-Central, Central, and Southern varieties, but are merged in Northern varieties (i.e. they are both pronounced the same way). The North-Central varieties preserve three distinct pronunciations for d, gi, and r whereas the North has a three-way merger and the Central and South have a merger of d and gi while keeping r distinct. At the end of syllables, palatals ch and nh have merged with alveolars t and n, which, in turn, have also partially merged with velars c and ng in Central and Southern varieties.

In addition to the regional variation described above, there is a merger of l and n in certain rural varieties in the North:^[41]

Variation between l and n can be found even in mainstream Vietnamese in certain words. For example, the numeral "five" appears as n?m by itself and in compound numerals like n?m mi "fifty" but appears as l?m in mi l?m "fifteen" (see Vietnamese grammar#Cardinal). In some northern varieties, this numeral appears with an initial nh instead of l: hai mi nh?m "twenty-five", instead of mainstream hai mi l?m.^[42]

There is also a merger of r and g in certain rural varieties in the South:

The consonant clusters that were originally present in Middle Vietnamese (of the 17th century) have been lost in almost all modern Vietnamese varieties (but retained in other closely related Vietic languages). However, some speech communities have preserved some of these archaic clusters: "sky" is bl?i with a cluster in H?o Nho (Yên Mô, Ninh Bình Province) but tr?i in Southern Vietnamese and gi?i in Hanoi Vietnamese (initial single consonants /?/, /z/, respectively).

Tones

Although there are six tones in Vietnamese, some tones may slightly "merge", but are still highly distinguishable due to the context of the speech. The h?i and ngã tones are distinct in North and some North-central varieties (although often with different pitch contours) but have somewhat merged in Central, Southern, and some North-Central varieties (also with different pitch contours). Some North-Central varieties (such as Hà T?nh Vietnamese) have a slight merger of the ngã and n?ng tones while keeping the h?i tone distinct. Still, other North-Central varieties have a three-way merger of h?i, ngã, and n?ng resulting in a four-tone system. In addition, there are several phonetic differences (mostly in pitch contour and phonation type) in the tones among dialects.

The table above shows the pitch contour of each tone using Chao tone number notation (where 1 represents the lowest pitch, and 5 the highest); glottalization (creaky, stiff, harsh) is indicated with the ⟨⟩ symbol; murmured voice with ⟨⟩; glottal stop with ⟨?⟩; sub-dialectal variants are separated with commas. (See also the tone section below.)

Grammar

Vietnamese, like Chinese and many languages in Southeast Asia, is an analytic language. Vietnamese does not use morphological marking of case, gender, number or tense (and, as a result, has no finite/nonfinite distinction).^[43] Also like other languages in the region, Vietnamese syntax conforms to subject-verb-object word order, is head-initial (displaying modified-modifier ordering), and has a noun classifier system. Additionally, it is pro-drop, wh-in-situ, and allows verb serialization.

Some Vietnamese sentences with English word glosses and translations are provided below.

Minh

Minh

là

BE

giáo viên

teacher.

Minh là {giáo viên}

Minh BE teacher.

"Min is a teacher."

Trí

Trí

13

13

tu?i

age

Trí 13 tu?i

Trí 13 age

"Trí is 13 years old,"

Tài

Tài

?ang

PRES.CONT

nói.

talk

Tài ?ang nói.

Tài PRES.CONT talk

"Tài is talking."

Mai

Mai

có v?

seem

là

BE

sinh viên

student (college)

ho?c

or

h?c sinh.

student (under-college)

Mai {có v?} là {sinh viên} ho?c {h?c sinh}.

Mai seem BE {student (college)} or {student (under-college)}

"Mai seems to be a college or high school student."

Giáp

Giáp

r?t

INT

cao.

tall

Giáp r?t cao.

Giáp INT tall

"Giáp is very tall."

Ngi

person

?ó

that.DET

là

BE

anh

older brother

c?a

POSS

nó.

3.PRO

Ngi ?ó là anh c?a nó.

person that.DET BE {older brother} POSS 3.PRO

"That person is his/her brother."

Con

CL

chó

dog

này

DET

ch?ng

NEG

bao gi?

ever

s?a

bark

c?.

all

Con chó này ch?ng {bao gi?} s?a c?.

CL dog DET NEG ever bark all

"This dog never barks at all."

Nó

3.PRO

ch?

just

?n

eat

c?m

rice.FAM

Vi?t Nam

Vietnam

thôi.

only

Nó ch? ?n c?m {Vi?t Nam} thôi.

3.PRO just eat rice.FAM Vietnam only

"He/she/it only eats Vietnamese rice (or food, especially spoken by the elderly)."

Tôi

1.PRO

thích

like

con

CL

ng?a

horse

?en.

black

Tôi thích con ng?a ?en.

1.PRO like CL horse black

"I like the black horse."

Tôi

1.PRO

thích

like

cái

FOC

con

CL

ng?a

horse

?en

black

?ó.

DET

Tôi thích cái con ng?a ?en ?ó.

1.PRO like FOC CL horse black DET

"I like that black horse."

Hãy

HORT

? l?i

stay

?ây

here

ít

few

phút

minute

cho t?i

until

khi

when

tôi

1.PRO

quay

turn

l?i.

come

Hãy {? l?i} ?ây ít phút {cho t?i} khi tôi quay l?i.

HORT stay here few minute until when 1.PRO turn come

"Please stay here for a few minutes until I come back."

Dates and numbers writing formats

Vietnameses speak date in the format "[day] [month] [year]". Each month's name is just the ordinal of that month appended after the word tháng, which means "month". Traditional Vietnamese however assigns other names to some months; these names are mostly used in the lunar calendar and in poetry.

When written in the short form, "DD/MM/YYYY" is preferred.

Example:

• English: 28 March 2018
• Vietnamese long form: Ngày 28 tháng 3 n?m 2018
• Vietnamese short form: 28/3/2018

The Vietnamese prefer writing numbers with a comma as the decimal separator in lieu of dots, and either spaces or dots to group the digits. An example is 1 629,15 (one thousand six hundred twenty-nine point fifteen). Because a comma is used as the decimal separator, a semicolon is used to separate two numbers instead.

Writing systems

"I speak Vietnamese" (Tôi nói ti?ng Vi?t Nam - ) is written in Latin (Vietnamese alphabet) or written in mixed scripts of ch? Hán (Chinese characters) and ch? Nôm (underline).

In the bilingual dictionary Nh?t d?ng thng ?àm (1851), Chinese characters (ch? Nho) are explained in ch? Nôm.

Jean-Louis Taberd's dictionary Dictionarium anamitico-latinum (1838) represents Vietnamese (then Annamese) words in the Latin alphabet and ch? Nôm.

A sign at the H?a Lò Prison museum in Hanoi lists rules for visitors in both Vietnamese and English.

Up to the late 19th century, a writing system that was a mix of two types of scripts was used in Vietnam: ch? Hán (Chinese characters) and ch? Nôm (lit. 'Southern characters').^[44] All formal writing, including government business, scholarship and formal literature, was done in Classical Chinese (called as "v?n ngôn" - or "Hán v?n" - in Vietnamese) with ch? Hán.

Folk literature in Vietnamese was recorded using the ch? Nôm script, which is based on borrowed Chinese characters and mostly modified and invented to represent native Vietnamese words. This was because ch? Hán could only be used for Sino-Vietnamese words, and was not enough to write native Vietnamese words. For example, the Vietnamese numerals for 1-2-3 are read in "m?t-hai-ba" in Vietnamese or "nh?t-nh?-tam" by Sino-Vietnamese pronunciation. Although the "nh?t-nh?-tam" represented by in ch? Hán was used in official contexts, Vietnamese speakers modified its ch? Nôm equivalent to in order to represent "m?t-hai-ba", which is the colloquial native equivalent.

Created in the 13th century or earlier, the Nôm writing reached its zenith in the 18th century when many Vietnamese writers and poets composed their works in Nôm, most notably Nguy?n Du and H? Xuân Hng (dubbed "the Queen of Nôm poetry"). However, it was only used for official purposes during the brief H? and Tây S?n dynasties.

A Vietnamese Catholic, Nguy?n Trng T?, sent petitions to the Court which suggested a Chinese character-based syllabary which would be used for Vietnamese sounds; however, his petition failed. The French colonial administration sought to eliminate the Chinese writing system, Confucianism, and other Chinese influences from Vietnam by getting rid of Nôm.^[45]

A romanization of Vietnamese was codified in the 17th century by the Avignonese Jesuit missionary Alexandre de Rhodes (1591-1660), based on works of earlier Portuguese missionaries, particularly Francisco de Pina, Gaspar do Amaral and Antonio Barbosa.^[46][47] Still, ch? Nôm was the dominant script in Vietnamese Catholic literature for more than 200 years.^[48] Starting from the late 19th century, the Vietnamese alphabet (ch? Qu?c ng? or "national language script") was gradually expanded from its initial usage in Christian writing to become more popular among the general public.

The Vietnamese alphabet contains 29 letters, including one digraph (?) and nine with diacritics, five of which are used to designate tone (i.e. à, á, ?, ã, and ?) and the other four used for separate letters of the Vietnamese alphabet (?, â/ê/ô, ?, ?).^[49]

This Romanized script became predominant over the course of the early 20th century, when education became widespread and a simpler writing system was found to be more expedient for teaching and communication with the general population. Under French colonial rule, French superseded Chinese in administration. Vietnamese written with the alphabet became required for all public documents in 1910 by issue of a decree by the French Résident Supérieur of the protectorate of Tonkin. In turn, Vietnamese reformists and nationalists themselves encouraged and popularized the use of ch? qu?c ng?. By the middle of the 20th century, most writing was done in ch? qu?c ng?, which became the official script on independence.

Nevertheless, Ch? Hán was still in use during the French colonial period and as late as World War II was still featured on banknotes,^[50][51] but fell out of official and mainstream use shortly thereafter. The education reform by North Vietnam in 1950 eliminated the use of ch? Hán and ch? Nôm.^[52] Today, only a few scholars and some extremely elderly people are able to read ch? Nôm or use it in Vietnamese calligraphy. In contrast, members of the Gin minority in China still write in ch? Nôm.

Ch? qu?c ng? reflects a "Middle Vietnamese" dialect that combines vowels and final consonants most similar to northern dialects with initial consonants most similar to southern dialects. This Middle Vietnamese is presumably close to the Hanoi variety as spoken sometime after 1600 but before the present. (This is not unlike how English orthography is based on the Chancery Standard of Late Middle English, with many spellings retained even after the Great Vowel Shift.)

Computer support

The Unicode character set contains all Vietnamese characters and the Vietnamese currency symbol. On systems that do not support Unicode, many 8-bit Vietnamese code pages are available such as Vietnamese Standard Code for Information Interchange (VSCII) or Windows-1258. Where ASCII must be used, Vietnamese letters are often typed using the VIQR convention, though this is largely unnecessary with the increasing ubiquity of Unicode. There are many software tools that help type Roman-script Vietnamese on English keyboards, such as WinVNKey and Unikey on Windows, or MacVNKey on Macintosh, with popular methods of encoding Vietnamese using Telex, VNI or VIQR input methods. Telex input method is often set as the default for many devices.

History

It seems likely that in the distant past, Vietnamese shared more characteristics common to other languages in the Austroasiatic family, such as an inflectional morphology and a richer set of consonant clusters, which have subsequently disappeared from the language. However, Vietnamese appears to have been heavily influenced by its location in the Mainland Southeast Asia linguistic area, with the result that it has acquired or converged toward characteristics such as isolating morphology and phonemically distinctive tones, through processes of tonogenesis. These characteristics have become part of many of the genetically unrelated languages of Southeast Asia; for example, Tsat (a member of the Malayo-Polynesian group within Austronesian), and Vietnamese each developed tones as a phonemic feature. The ancestor of the Vietnamese language is usually believed to have been originally based in the area of the Red River Delta in what is now northern Vietnam.^[53][54][55]

Distinctive tonal variations emerged during the subsequent expansion of the Vietnamese language and people into what is now central and southern Vietnam through conquest of the ancient nation of Champa and the Khmer people of the Mekong Delta in the vicinity of present-day Ho Chi Minh City, also known as Saigon.

Vietnamese was primarily influenced by Chinese, which came to predominate politically in the 2nd century BC. After Vietnam achieved independence in the 10th century, the ruling class adopted Classical Chinese as the formal medium of government, scholarship and literature. With the dominance of Chinese came radical importation of Chinese vocabulary and grammatical influence. A portion of the Vietnamese lexicon in all realms consists of Sino-Vietnamese words (They comprise about a third of the Vietnamese lexicon, and may account for as much as 60% of the vocabulary used in formal texts.^[56])

When France invaded Vietnam in the late 19th century, French gradually replaced Chinese as the official language in education and government. Vietnamese adopted many French terms, such as m (dame, from madame), ga (train station, from gare), s? mi (shirt, from chemise), and búp bê (doll, from poupée). In addition, many Sino-Vietnamese terms were devised for Western ideas imported through the French.

Henri Maspero described six periods of the Vietnamese language:^[57][58]

1. Proto-Viet-Muong, also known as Pre-Vietnamese or Proto-Vietnamuong, the ancestor of Vietnamese and the related Muong language (before 7th century AD).
2. Proto-Vietnamese, the oldest reconstructable version of Vietnamese, dated to just before the entry of massive amounts of Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary into the language, c. 7th to 9th century AD. At this state, the language had three tones.
3. Archaic Vietnamese, the state of the language upon adoption of the Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary and the beginning of creation of the Vietnamese characters during the Ngô Dynasty, c. 10th century AD.
4. Ancient Vietnamese, the language represented by Ch? Nôm (c. 15th century), widely used during the Lê and the Chinese-Vietnamese, and the Ming glossary "Annanguo Yiyu" (c. 15th century) by the Bureau of Interpreters (from the series Huáyí Yìy? (Chinese: ?). By this point, a tone split had happened in the language, leading to six tones but a loss of contrastive voicing among consonants.
5. Middle Vietnamese, the language of the Dictionarium Annamiticum Lusitanum et Latinum of the Jesuit missionary Alexandre de Rhodes (c. 17th century); the dictionary was published in Rome in 1651. Another famous dictionary of this period was written by P. J. Pigneau de Behaine in 1773 and published by Jean-Louis Taberd in 1838.
6. Modern Vietnamese, from the 19th century.

Proto-Viet-Muong

The following diagram shows the phonology of Proto-Viet-Muong (the nearest ancestor of Vietnamese and the closely related Muong language), along with the outcomes in the modern language:^{[59][60][61][62]}

		Labial	Dental/Alveolar		Palatal	Velar	Glottal
Stop	tenuis	*p > b	*t > ?		*c > ch	*k > k/c/q	*? > #
	voiced	*b > b	*d > ?		*? > ch	*? > k/c/q
	aspirated	*p? > ph	*t? > th			*k? > kh
	voiced glottalized	*? > m	*? > n		*? > nh 1
Nasal		*m > m	*n > n		*? > nh	*? > ng/ngh
Affricate					*t? > x 1
Fricative	voiceless			*s > t			*h > h
	voiced 2	*(?) > v 3	*(ð) > d	*(r?) > r 4	*(?) > gi	*(?) > g/gh
Approximant		*w > v	*l > l	*r > r	*j > d

^1 According to Ferlus, */t?/ and */?/ are not accepted by all researchers. Ferlus 1992^[59] also had additional phonemes */d?/ and */?/.

^2 The fricatives indicated above in parentheses developed as allophones of stop consonants occurring between vowels (i.e. when a minor syllable occurred). These fricatives were not present in Proto-Viet-Muong, as indicated by their absence in Muong, but were evidently present in the later Proto-Vietnamese stage. Subsequent loss of the minor-syllable prefixes phonemicized the fricatives. Ferlus 1992^[59] proposes that originally there were both voiced and voiceless fricatives, corresponding to original voiced or voiceless stops, but Ferlus 2009^[60] appears to have abandoned that hypothesis, suggesting that stops were softened and voiced at approximately the same time, according to the following pattern:

• *p, *b > /?/
• *t, *d > /ð/
• *s > /r?/
• *c, *?, *t? > /?/
• *k, *? > /?/

^3 In Middle Vietnamese, the outcome of these sounds was written with a hooked b (), representing a /?/ that was still distinct from v (then pronounced /w/). See below.

^4 It is unclear what this sound was. According to Ferlus 1992,^[59] in the Archaic Vietnamese period (c. 10th century AD, when Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary was borrowed) it was *r?, distinct at that time from *r.

The following initial clusters occurred, with outcomes indicated:

• *pr, *br, *tr, *dr, *kr, *gr > /k?r/ > /k?/ > s
• *pl, *bl > MV bl > Northern gi, Southern tr
• *kl, *gl > MV tl > tr
• *ml > MV ml > mnh > nh
• *kj > gi

A large number of words were borrowed from Middle Chinese, forming part of the Sino-Vietnamese vocabulary. These caused the original introduction of the retroflex sounds /?/ and /?/ (modern s, tr) into the language.

Origin of the tones

Proto-Viet-Muong had no tones to speak of. The tones later developed in some of the daughter languages from distinctions in the initial and final consonants. Vietnamese tones developed as follows:

Register	Initial consonant	Smooth ending	Glottal ending	Fricative ending
High (first) register	Voiceless	A1 ngang "level"	B1 s?c "sharp"	C1 h?i "asking"
Low (second) register	Voiced	A2 huy?n "deep"	B2 n?ng "heavy"	C2 ngã "tumbling"

Glottal-ending syllables ended with a glottal stop /?/, while fricative-ending syllables ended with /s/ or /h/. Both types of syllables could co-occur with a resonant (e.g. /m/ or /n/).

At some point, a tone split occurred, as in many other Southeast Asian languages. Essentially, an allophonic distinction developed in the tones, whereby the tones in syllables with voiced initials were pronounced differently from those with voiceless initials. (Approximately speaking, the voiced allotones were pronounced with additional breathy voice or creaky voice and with lowered pitch. The quality difference predominates in today's northern varieties, e.g. in Hanoi, while in the southern varieties the pitch difference predominates, as in Ho Chi Minh City.) Subsequent to this, the plain-voiced stops became voiceless and the allotones became new phonemic tones. Note that the implosive stops were unaffected, and in fact developed tonally as if they were unvoiced. (This behavior is common to all East Asian languages with implosive stops.)

As noted above, Proto-Viet-Muong had sesquisyllabic words with an initial minor syllable (in addition to, and independent of, initial clusters in the main syllable). When a minor syllable occurred, the main syllable's initial consonant was intervocalic and as a result suffered lenition, becoming a voiced fricative. The minor syllables were eventually lost, but not until the tone split had occurred. As a result, words in modern Vietnamese with voiced fricatives occur in all six tones, and the tonal register reflects the voicing of the minor-syllable prefix and not the voicing of the main-syllable stop in Proto-Viet-Muong that produced the fricative. For similar reasons, words beginning with /l/ and /?/ occur in both registers. (Thompson 1976^[62] reconstructed voiceless resonants to account for outcomes where resonants occur with a first-register tone, but this is no longer considered necessary, at least by Ferlus.)

Old Vietnamese

Old Vietnamese was an Vietic language which was separated from Viet-Muong around 9th century, and evolved to Middle Vietnamese by 15th century. The sources for the reconstruction of Old Vietnamese are 12th-century text Ph?t thuy?t i báo ph? m?u ân tr?ng kinh ("S?tra explained by the Buddha on the Great Repayment of the Heavy Debt to Parents")^[65] and late 13th-century (possibly 1293) Annan Jishi by Chinese diplomat Chen Fu (c. 1259 - 1309).^[77]

Middle Vietnamese

The writing system used for Vietnamese is based closely on the system developed by Alexandre de Rhodes for his 1651 Dictionarium Annamiticum Lusitanum et Latinum. It reflects the pronunciation of the Vietnamese of Hanoi at that time, a stage commonly termed Middle Vietnamese (ti?ng Vi?t trung i). The pronunciation of the "rime" of the syllable, i.e. all parts other than the initial consonant (optional /w/ glide, vowel nucleus, tone and final consonant), appears nearly identical between Middle Vietnamese and modern Hanoi pronunciation. On the other hand, the Middle Vietnamese pronunciation of the initial consonant differs greatly from all modern dialects, and in fact is significantly closer to the modern Saigon dialect than the modern Hanoi dialect.

The following diagram shows the orthography and pronunciation of Middle Vietnamese:

		Labial	Dental/ Alveolar	Retroflex	Palatal	Velar	Glottal
Nasal		m [m]	n [n]		nh [?]	ng/ngh [?]
Stop	tenuis	p [p]1	t [t]	tr [?]	ch [c]	c/k [k]
	aspirated	ph [p?]	th [t?]			kh [k?]
	voiced glottalized	b [?]	? [?]
Fricative	voiceless			s/s [?]	x [?]		h [h]
	voiced	? [?]2	d [ð]		gi [?]	g/gh [?]
Approximant		v/u/o [w]	l [l]		y/i/? [j]3
Rhotic			r [r]

The first page of the ? section in Alexandre de Rhodes's Dictionarium Annamiticum Lusitanum et Latinum (Vietnamese-Portuguese-Latin dictionary)

^1 [p] occurs only at the end of a syllable.
^2 This symbol, "Latin small letter B with flourish", looks like: . It has a rounded hook that starts halfway up the left side (where the top of the curved part of the b meets the vertical, straight part) and curves about 180 degrees counterclockwise, ending below the bottom-left corner.
^3 [j] does not occur at the beginning of a syllable, but can occur at the end of a syllable, where it is notated i or y (with the difference between the two often indicating differences in the quality or length of the preceding vowel), and after /ð/ and /?/, where it is notated ?. This ?, and the /j/ it notated, have disappeared from the modern language.

Note that b [?] and p [p] never contrast in any position, suggesting that they are allophones.

The language also has three clusters at the beginning of syllables, which have since disappeared:

• tl /tl/ > modern tr
• bl /?l/ > modern gi (Northern), tr (Southern)
• ml /ml/ > mnh /m?/ > modern nh

Most of the unusual correspondences between spelling and modern pronunciation are explained by Middle Vietnamese. Note in particular:

• de Rhodes' system has two different b letters, a regular b and a "hooked" b in which the upper section of the curved part of the b extends leftward past the vertical bar and curls down again in a semicircle. This apparently represented a voiced bilabial fricative /?/. Within a century or so, both /?/ and /w/ had merged as /v/, spelled as v.
• de Rhodes' system has a second medial glide /j/ that is written ? and appears in some words with initial d and hooked b. These later disappear.
• ? /?/ was (and still is) alveolar, whereas d /ð/ was dental. The choice of symbols was based on the dental rather than alveolar nature of /d/ and its allophone [ð] in Spanish and other Romance languages. The inconsistency with the symbols assigned to /?/ vs. /?/ was based on the lack of any such place distinction between the two, with the result that the stop consonant /?/ appeared more "normal" than the fricative /?/. In both cases, the implosive nature of the stops does not appear to have had any role in the choice of symbol.
• x was the alveolo-palatal fricative /?/ rather than the dental /s/ of the modern language. In 17th-century Portuguese, the common language of the Jesuits, s was the apico-alveolar sibilant /s?/ (as still in much of Spain and some parts of Portugal), while x was a palatoalveolar /?/. The similarity of apicoalveolar /s?/ to the Vietnamese retroflex /?/ led to the assignment of s and x as above.

de Rhodes's entry for d?óu? shows distinct breves, acutes and apices.

De Rhodes's orthography also made use of an apex diacritic to indicate a final labial-velar nasal /m/, an allophone of /?/ that is peculiar to the Hanoi dialect to the present day. This diacritic is often mistaken for a tilde in modern reproductions of early Vietnamese writing.

Word play

A language game known as nói lái is used by Vietnamese speakers.^[78]Nói lái involves switching the tones in a pair of words and also the order of the two words or the first consonant and rime of each word; the resulting nói lái pair preserves the original sequence of tones. Some examples:

Original phrase		Phrase after nói lái transformation	Structural change
?ái d?m "(child) pee "	->	d?m ?ài (literal translation "vinegar stage")	word order and tone switch
ch?a hoang "pregnancy out of wedlock"	->	ho?ng ch?a "scared yet?"	word order and tone switch
b?y tôi "all the king's subjects"	->	b?i tây "west waiter "	initial consonant, rime, and tone switch
bí m?t "secrets"	->	b?t mí "revealing secrets"	initial consonant and rime switch

The resulting transformed phrase often has a different meaning but sometimes may just be a nonsensical word pair. Nói lái can be used to obscure the original meaning and thus soften the discussion of a socially sensitive issue, as with d?m ?ài and ho?ng ch?a (above) or, when implied (and not overtly spoken), to deliver a hidden subtextual message, as with b?i tây.^[79] Naturally, nói lái can be used for a humorous effect.^[80]

Another word game somewhat reminiscent of pig latin is played by children. Here a nonsense syllable (chosen by the child) is prefixed onto a target word's syllables, then their initial consonants and rimes are switched with the tone of the original word remaining on the new switched rime.

Nonsense syllable	Target word		Intermediate form with prefixed syllable		Resulting "secret" word
la	ph? "beef or chicken noodle soup"	->	la ph?	->	l? ph?
la	?n "to eat"	->	la ?n	->	l?n a
la	hoàn c?nh "situation"	->	la hoàn la c?nh	->	loan hà lanh c?
chim	hoàn c?nh "situation"	->	chim hoàn chim c?nh	->	choan hìm chanh k?m

This language game is often used as a "secret" or "coded" language useful for obscuring messages from adult comprehension.

Examples

The Tale of Kieu is an epic narrative poem by the celebrated poet Nguy?n Du, (??), which is often considered the most significant work of Vietnamese literature. It was originally written in Ch? Nôm (titled ?o?n Trng Tân Thanh ??) and is widely taught in Vietnam today.

See also

• Vietnamese Wikipedia
• Vietnamese calligraphy
• Vietnamese pronouns
• Vietnamese studies

Notes

References

Bibliography

General

• Dng, Qu?ng-Hàm. (1941). Vi?t-nam v?n-h?c s?-y?u [Outline history of Vietnamese literature]. Saigon: B? Qu?c gia Giáo d?c.
• Emeneau, M. B. (1947). "Homonyms and puns in Annamese". Language. 23 (3): 239-244. doi:10.2307/409878. JSTOR 409878.
• Emeneau, M. B. (1951). Studies in Vietnamese (Annamese) grammar. University of California publications in linguistics (Vol. 8). Berkeley: University of California Press.
• Hashimoto, Mantaro. (1978). "Current developments in Sino-Vietnamese studies". Journal of Chinese Linguistics, 6, 1-26. JSTOR 23752818
• Nguy?n, ?ình-Hoà. (1995). NTC's Vietnamese-English dictionary (updated ed.). NTC language dictionaries. Lincolnwood, Illinois: NTC Pub. Press.
• Nguy?n, ?ình-Hoà. (1997). Vietnamese: Ti?ng Vi?t không son ph?n. Amsterdam: John Benjamins Publishing Company.
• Rhodes, Alexandre de (1991). L. Thanh; X. V. Hoàng; Q. C. (eds.). Dictionarium Annamiticum Lusitanum et Latinum. Hanoi: Khoa h?c Xã h?i.
• Thompson, Laurence C. (1991). A Vietnamese reference grammar. Seattle: University of Washington Press. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. (Original work published 1965)
• U? ban Khoa h?c Xã h?i Vi?t Nam. (1983). Ng?-pháp ti?ng Vi?t [Vietnamese grammar]. Hanoi: Khoa h?c Xã h?i.
• Nguyen, Dinh Tham (2018). Studies on Vietnamese Language and Literature: A Preliminary Bibliography. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-1-501-71882-3.

Sound system

• Brunelle, Marc (2009). "Tone perception in Northern and Southern Vietnamese". Journal of Phonetics. 37 (1): 79-96. doi:10.1016/j.wocn.2008.09.003.
• Brunelle, Marc (2009). "Northern and Southern Vietnamese Tone Coarticulation: A Comparative Case Study" (PDF). Journal of Southeast Asian Linguistics. 1: 49-62. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2018-11-13.
• Kirby, James P. (2011). "Vietnamese (Hanoi Vietnamese)" (PDF). Journal of the International Phonetic Association. 41 (3): 381-392. doi:10.1017/S0025100311000181.
• Michaud, Alexis (2004). "Final consonants and glottalization: New perspectives from Hanoi Vietnamese". Phonetica. 61 (2-3): 119-146. doi:10.1159/000082560. PMID 15662108. S2CID 462578.
• Nguy?n, V?n L?i; Edmondson, Jerold A (1998). "Tones and voice quality in modern northern Vietnamese: Instrumental case studies". Mon-Khmer Studies. 28: 1-18.
• Thompson, Laurence E (1959). "Saigon phonemics". Language. 35 (3): 454-476. doi:10.2307/411232. JSTOR 411232.

Language variation

• Alves, Mark J. 2007. "A Look At North-Central Vietnamese" In SEALS XII Papers from the 12th Annual Meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society 2002, edited by Ratree Wayland et al. Canberra, Australia, 1-7. Pacific Linguistics, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, The Australian National University
• Alves, Mark J.; & Nguy?n, Duy Hng. (2007). "Notes on Thanh-Chng Vietnamese in Ngh?-An province". In M. Alves, M. Sidwell, & D. Gil (Eds.), SEALS VIII: Papers from the 8th annual meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society 1998 (pp. 1-9). Canberra: Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University, Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies
• Hoàng, Th? Châu. (1989). Ti?ng Vi?t trên các mi?n t nc: Phng ng? h?c [Vietnamese in different areas of the country: Dialectology]. Hà N?i: Khoa h?c xã h?i.
• Honda, Koichi. (2006). "F0 and phonation types in Nghe Tinh Vietnamese tones". In P. Warren & C. I. Watson (Eds.), Proceedings of the 11th Australasian International Conference on Speech Science and Technology (pp. 454-459). Auckland, New Zealand: University of Auckland.
• Pham, Andrea Hoa. (2005). "Vietnamese tonal system in Nghi Loc: A preliminary report". In C. Frigeni, M. Hirayama, & S. Mackenzie (Eds.), Toronto working papers in linguistics: Special issue on similarity in phonology (Vol. 24, pp. 183-459). Auckland, New Zealand: University of Auckland.
• V?, Thanh Phng. (1982). "Phonetic properties of Vietnamese tones across dialects". In D. Bradley (Ed.), Papers in Southeast Asian linguistics: Tonation (Vol. 8, pp. 55-75). Sydney: Pacific Linguistics, The Australian National University.
• Vng, H?u L?. (1981). "Vài nh?n xét v? c di?m c?a v?n trong th? âm Qu?ng Nam ? H?i An" [Some notes on special qualities of the rhyme in local Qu?ng Nam speech in H?i An]. In M?t S? V?n Ð? Ngôn Ng? H?c Vi?t Nam [Some linguistics issues in Vietnam] (pp. 311-320). Hà N?i: Nhà Xu?t B?n Ð?i H?c và Trung H?c Chuyên Nghi?p.

Pragmatics

• Luong, Hy Van. (1987). "Plural markers and personal pronouns in Vietnamese person reference: An analysis of pragmatic ambiguity and negative models". Anthropological Linguistics, 29(1), 49-70. JSTOR 30028089
• Sophana, Srichampa (2004). "Politeness strategies in Hanoi Vietnamese speech". Mon-Khmer Studies. 34: 137-157.
• Sophana, Srichampa (2005). "Comparison of greetings in the Vietnamese dialects of Ha Noi and Ho Chi Minh City". Mon-Khmer Studies. 35: 83-99.

Historical and comparative

• Alves, Mark J. (2001). "What's So Chinese About Vietnamese?" (PDF). In Thurgood, Graham W. (ed.). Papers from the Ninth Annual Meeting of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society. Arizona State University, Program for Southeast Asian Studies. pp. 221-242. ISBN 978-1-881044-27-7.
• Cooke, Joseph R. (1968). Pronominal reference in Thai, Burmese, and Vietnamese. University of California publications in linguistics (No. 52). Berkeley: University of California Press.
• Ferlus, Michael (2009). "A Layer of Dongsonian Vocabulary in Vietnamese". Journal of the Southeast Asian Linguistics Society. 1: 95-108.
• Gregerson, Kenneth J. (1969). "A study of Middle Vietnamese phonology". Bulletin de la Société des Etudes Indochinoises, 44, 135-193. (Reprinted in 1981).
• Maspero, Henri (1912). "Etudes sur la phonétique historique de la langue annamite. Les initiales". Bulletin de l'École française d'Extrême-Orient. 12 (1): 1-124. doi:10.3406/befeo.1912.2713.
• Nguy?n, ?ình-Hoà (1986). "Alexandre de Rhodes' dictionary". Papers in Linguistics. 19: 1-18. doi:10.1080/08351818609389247.
• Sagart, Laurent (2008), "The expansion of Setaria farmers in East Asia", in Sanchez-Mazas, Alicia; Blench, Roger; Ross, Malcolm D.; Ilia, Peiros; Lin, Marie (eds.), Past human migrations in East Asia: matching archaeology, linguistics and genetics, Routledge, pp. 133-157, ISBN 978-0-415-39923-4
• Shorto, Harry L. edited by Sidwell, Paul, Cooper, Doug and Bauer, Christian (2006). A Mon-Khmer comparative dictionary. Canberra: Australian National University. Pacific Linguistics. ISBN
• Thompson, Laurence E (1967). "The history of Vietnamese final palatals". Language. 43 (1): 362-371. doi:10.2307/411402. JSTOR 411402.
• Gong, Xun (2019). "Chinese loans in Old Vietnamese with a sesquisyllabic phonology". Journal of Language Relationship. 17 (1-2): 55-72. doi:10.31826/jlr-2019-171-209.

Orthography

• Haudricourt, André-Georges (1949). "Origine des particularités de l'alphabet vietnamien". Dân Vi?t-Nam. 3: 61-68.
  • English translation: Michaud, Alexis; Haudricourt, André-Georges (2010). "The origin of the peculiarities of the Vietnamese alphabet". Mon-Khmer Studies. 39: 89-104.
• Nguy?n, ?ình-Hoà. (1955). Qu?c-ng?: The modern writing system in Vietnam. Washington, DC: Author.
• Nguy?n, ?ình-Hoà (1990). "Graphemic borrowing from Chinese: The case of ch? nôm, Vietnam's demotic script". Bulletin of the Institute of History and Philology, Academia Sinica. 61: 383-432.
• Nguy?n, ?ình-Hoà. (1996). Vietnamese. In P. T. Daniels, & W. Bright (Eds.), The world's writing systems, (pp. 691-699). New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-507993-7.

Pedagogical

• Nguyen, Bich Thuan. (1997). Contemporary Vietnamese: An intermediate text. Southeast Asian language series. Northern Illinois University, Center for Southeast Asian Studies.
• Healy, Dana. (2004). Teach Yourself Vietnamese. Teach Yourself. Chicago: McGraw-Hill. ISBN
• Hoang, Thinh; Nguyen, Xuan Thu; Trinh, Quynh-Tram; (2000). Vietnamese phrasebook, (3rd ed.). Hawthorn, Vic.: Lonely Planet. ISBN
• Moore, John. (1994). Colloquial Vietnamese: A complete language course. London: Routledge.
• Nguy?n, ?ình-Hoà. (1967). Read Vietnamese: A graded course in written Vietnamese. Rutland, Vermont: C.E. Tuttle.
• Lâm, Lý-duc; Emeneau, M. B.; von den Steinen, Diether. (1944). An Annamese reader. Berkeley: University of California, Berkeley.
• Nguy?n, ng Liêm. (1970). Vietnamese pronunciation. PALI language texts: Southeast Asia. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press.

External links

Online lessons

• Online Vietnamese lessons from Northern Illinois University

Vocabulary

• Vietnamese Vocabulary List (from the World Loanword Database)
• Swadesh list of Vietnamese basic vocabulary words (from Wiktionary's Swadesh-list appendix)

Language tools

• The Vietnamese keyboard its layout is compared with US, UK, Canada, France, and Germany's keyboards.
• The Free Vietnamese Dictionary Project

Research projects and data resources

• http://projekt.ht.lu.se/rwaai RWAAI (Repository and Workspace for Austroasiatic Intangible Heritage)
• http://hdl.handle.net/10050/00-0000-0000-0003-93ED-5@view Vietnamese in RWAAI Digital Archive